Invention of the Car A History of the Automobile

The very first self-powered road vehicles were powered by steam engines, and by that definition, Nicolas Joseph Cugnot of France built the  first automobile  in 1769 — recognized by the British Royal Automobile Club and the Automobile Club de France as being the first. So why do so many history books say that the automobile was invented by either Gottlieb Daimler or Karl Benz? It is because both Daimler and Benz invented highly successful and practical gasoline-powered vehicles that ushered in the age of modern automobiles. Daimler and Benz invented cars that looked and worked like the cars we use today. However, it is unfair to say that either man invented the automobile. Internal Combustion Engine: The Heart of the Automobile An internal combustion engine is an engine that uses the explosive combustion of fuel to push a piston within a cylinder —  the pistons movement turns a crankshaft that then turns the car wheels via a chain or a drive shaft.  The different types of fuel commonly used for car combustion engines are gasoline (or petrol), diesel, and kerosene. A brief outline of the history of the internal combustion engine includes the following highlights: 1680  - Dutch physicist,  Christian Huygens  designed (but never built) an internal combustion engine that was to be fueled with gunpowder.1807  - Francois Isaac de Rivaz of Switzerland invented an internal combustion engine that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen for fuel. Rivaz designed a car for his engine — the first internal combustion powered automobile. However, his was a very unsuccessful design.1824  - English engineer, Samuel Brown adapted an old Newcomen steam engine to burn gas, and he used it to briefly power a vehicle up Shooters Hill in London.1858  -  Belgian-born  engineer,  Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir invented and patented (1860) a double-acting, electric spark-ignition internal combustion engine fueled by coal gas.  In 1863,  Lenoir attached an improved engine (using petroleum and a primitive carburetor) to a three-wheeled wagon that managed to complete a  historic fifty-mile road trip.  1862  - Alphonse Beau de Rochas, a Fr ench  civil engineer, patented but did not build a four-stroke engine (French patent #52,593, January 16, 1862).1864  -  Austrian engineer,  Siegfried Marcus, built a one-cylinder engine with a crude carburetor and attached his engine to a cart for a rocky 500-foot drive. Several years later, Marcus designed a vehicle that briefly ran at 10 mph, which a few historians have considered as the forerunner of the modern automobile by being the worlds first gasoline-powered vehicle (however, read  conflicting notes  below).1873  - George Brayton, an American engineer, developed an unsuccessful two-stroke kerosene engine (it used two external pumping cylinders). However, it was considered the first  safe and practical oil engine.1866  - German engineers, Eugen Langen, and Nicolaus August Otto improved on Lenoirs and de Rochas designs and invented a more efficient gas engine.1876  - Nicolaus August Otto invented and later patented a successful four-stroke engine, known a s the Otto cycle.1876  - The first successful two-stroke engine was invented by Sir Dougald Clerk.1883 -  French engineer, Edouard Delamare-Debouteville, built a single-cylinder four-stroke engine that ran on stove gas. It is not certain if he did indeed build a car, however, Delamare-Deboutevilles designs were very advanced for the time — ahead of both Daimler and Benz in some ways at least on paper.1885  - Gottlieb Daimler invented what is often recognized as the prototype of the modern gas engine — with a vertical cylinder, and with gasoline injected through a carburetor (patented in 1887). Daimler first built a two-wheeled vehicle the Reitwagen (Riding Carriage) with this engine and a year later built the worlds first four-wheeled motor vehicle.1886  - On January 29, Karl Benz received the first patent (DRP No. 37435) for a gas-fueled car.1889  - Daimler built an improved four-stroke engine with mushroom-shaped valves and two V-slant cylinders.1890  -  Wilhelm Maybach built the first four-cylinder, four-stroke engine. Engine design and car design were integral activities, almost all of the engine designers mentioned above also designed cars, and a few went on to become major manufacturers of automobiles.  All of these inventors and more made notable improvements in the evolution of the internal combustion vehicles. The Importance of Nicolaus Otto One of the most important landmarks in engine design comes from Nicolaus August Otto who in 1876 invented an effective gas motor engine. Otto built the first practical four-stroke internal combustion engine called the Otto Cycle Engine, and as soon as he had completed his engine, he built it into a motorcycle. Ottos contributions were very historically significant, it was his four-stroke engine that was universally adopted for all liquid-fueled automobiles going forward. Karl Benz In 1885, German mechanical engineer, Karl Benz designed and built the worlds first practical automobile to be powered by an internal-combustion engine. On January 29, 1886, Benz received the first patent (DRP No. 37435) for a gas-fueled car. It was a three-wheeler; Benz built his first four-wheeled car in 1891. Benz Cie., the company started by the inventor, became the worlds largest manufacturer of automobiles by 1900. Benz was the first inventor to integrate an internal combustion engine with a chassis - designing both together. Gottlieb Daimler In 1885, Gottlieb Daimler (together with his design partner Wilhelm Maybach) took Ottos internal combustion engine a step further and patented what is generally recognized as the prototype of the modern gas engine. Daimlers connection to Otto was a direct one; Daimler worked as technical director of Deutz Gasmotorenfabrik, which Nikolaus Otto co-owned in 1872. There is some controversy as to who built the first  motorcycle, Otto or Daimler. The 1885 Daimler-Maybach engine was small, lightweight, fast, used a gasoline-injected carburetor, and had a vertical cylinder. The size, speed, and efficiency of the engine allowed for a revolution in car design.  On March 8, 1886, Daimler took a stagecoach and adapted it to hold his engine, thereby designing the worlds  first four-wheeled automobile.  Daimler is considered the first inventor to have invented a practical internal-combustion engine. In 1889, Daimler invented a V-slanted two cylinder, four-stroke engine with mushroom-shaped valves. Just like Ottos 1876 engine, Daimlers new engine set the basis for all car engines going forward. Also in 1889, Daimler and Maybach built their first automobile from the ground up, they did not adapt another purpose vehicle as they had always been done previously. The new Daimler automobile had a  four-speed transmission and obtained speeds of 10 mph. Daimler founded the Daimler Motoren-Gesellschaft in 1890 to manufacture his designs. Eleven years later, Wilhelm Maybach designed the Mercedes automobile. If Siegfried Marcus built his second car in 1875 and it was as claimed, it would have been the first vehicle powered by a four-cycle engine and the first to use gasoline as a fuel, the first having a carburetor for a gasoline engine and the first having a magneto ignition. However, the only existing evidence indicates that the vehicle was built circa 1888/89 — too late to be first. By the early 1900s,  gasoline cars  started to outsell all other types of motor vehicles. The market was growing for economical automobiles and the need for industrial production was pressing. The first car manufacturers in the world were French: Panhard Levassor (1889) and Peugeot (1891). By car manufacturer we mean builders of entire motor vehicles for sale and not just engine inventors who experimented with car design to test their engines —  Daimler  and  Benz  began as the latter before becoming full car manufacturers and made their early money by licensing their patents and selling their engines to car manufacturers. Rene Panhard and Emile Levassor Rene Panhard and Emile Levassor were partners in a woodworking machinery business when they decided to become car manufacturers. They built their first car in 1890 using a Daimler engine. Edouard Sarazin, who held the license rights to the Daimler patent for France, commissioned the team. (Licensing a patent means that you pay a fee and then you have the right to build and use someones invention for profit — in this case, Sarazin had the right to build and sell Daimler engines in France.) The partners not only manufactured cars, but they also made improvements to the automotive body design. Panhard-Levassor made vehicles with a pedal-operated clutch, a chain transmission leading to a change-speed gearbox, and a front radiator. Levassor was the first designer to move the engine to the front of the car and use a rear-wheel-drive layout. This design was known as the Systeme Panhard and quickly became the standard for all cars because it gave a better balance and improved steering. Panhard and Levassor are also credited with the invention of the modern transmission — installed in their 1895 Panhard. Panhard and Levassor also shared the licensing rights to Daimler motors with Armand Peugeot. A Peugeot car went on to win the first car race held in France, which gained Peugeot publicity and boosted car sales. Ironically, the Paris to Marseille race of 1897 resulted in a fatal auto accident, killing Emile Levassor. Early on, French manufacturers did not standardize car models — each car was different from the other. The first standardized car was the 1894 Benz Velo. One hundred and thirty-four identical Velos were manufactured in 1895. Charles and Frank Duryea Americas first gasoline-powered commercial car manufacturers were Charles and Frank Duryea. The brothers were bicycle makers who became interested in gasoline engines and automobiles and built their first motor vehicle in 1893, in Springfield, Massachusetts. By 1896, the Duryea Motor Wagon Company had sold thirteen models of the Duryea, an expensive limousine, which remained in production into the 1920s. Ransome Eli Olds The first automobile to be mass produced in the United States was the 1901 Curved Dash Oldsmobile, built by the American car manufacturer Ransome Eli Olds (1864-1950). Olds invented the basic concept of the assembly line and started the Detroit area automobile industry. He first began making steam and gasoline engines with his father, Pliny Fisk Olds, in Lansing, Michigan in 1885. Olds designed his first steam-powered car in 1887. In 1899, with a growing experience of gasoline engines, Olds moved to Detroit to start the Olds Motor Works, and produce low-priced cars. He produced 425 Curved Dash Olds in 1901, and was Americas leading auto manufacturer from 1901 to 1904. Henry Ford American car manufacturer, Henry Ford (1863-1947) invented an improved assembly line and installed the first conveyor belt-based assembly line in his car factory in Fords Highland Park, Michigan plant, around 1913-14. The assembly line reduced production costs for cars by reducing assembly time. Fords famous Model T was assembled in ninety-three minutes. Ford made his first car, called the Quadricycle, in June 1896. However, success came after he formed the Ford Motor Company in 1903. This was the third car manufacturing company formed to produce the cars he designed. He introduced the Model T in 1908 and it was a success. After installing the moving assembly lines in his factory in 1913, Ford became the worlds biggest car manufacturer. By 1927, 15 million Model Ts had been manufactured. Another victory won by Henry Ford was  a patent battle  with George B. Selden. Selden, who had never built an automobile, held a patent on a road engine, on that basis Selden was paid royalties by all American car manufacturers. Ford overturned Seldens patent and opened the American car market for the building of inexpensive cars.

German And United Kingdom Primary Influential Factors

German and United Kingdom: Primary Influential Factors in Government Formation Comparative analyses of European politics allow political scientists to formulate and test policies through cross-compare, learn best practices, make predictions and develop a standardized model of democracy for new nations. Techniques of comparison are useful in the observation of government formation, as they enable analysts to derive the similar and differing factors influencing formations. Throughout Europe, there are four types of government formations: single-party majority, minimal-winning coalition, oversized coalitions and minority governments. According to European Politics: A Comparative Introduction, where Tim Bale calculated the percentage of each administration between 1945 and 2010, the overall composition of Europe s governments (limited to the 27 member-states of the European Union or EU-27) can be broken down into the following: 11 percent single-party majority, 33 percent minimal-winning coalition, 34 percent minority government and 21 percent oversized coalitions (Bale 2013 – p119, Gallagher et al., (2011: 434). While minimal-winning coalition and minority government are far more common than other types of governments, it has been argued that coalitions are the norm in Europe (Boucek, 2010:48-51). Political scientists have recognized two main factors influencing coalition formation: office-seeking – where parties form alliances to obtain power and positions in theShow MoreRelatedA Brief Note On The World War I1755 Words   |  8 Pages(Berghahn 122-124). 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Alienation in “Black Boy” Free Essays

Carlos Hernandez Eng. 111 Prof. Weitz 02/18/2009 Causes of Alienation in Black Boy Black Boy demonstrates how the protagonist, Richard Wright, alienated himself from his community because he did not share the same religious and societal beliefs practiced by his community and felt that the questions he had about everyday life would not be answered if he conformed to his degraded position in society. We will write a custom essay sample on Alienation in â€Å"Black Boy† or any similar topic only for you Order Now Richard alienated himself from his community because he wanted to find answers to his questions about racism that were not being answered. His desire and capacity for knowledge is discouraged and underestimated by whites and blacks due to living in the Jim Crow South. Religion is also a cause of alienation because Richard does not share the same enthusiasm for religion as the community does. These are all causes of alienation for Richard. The first signs of alienation come as a result of Richard’s curiosity with the world around him. An insatiable sense of curiosity grew in him after learning to read, write, and count to one hundred that he soon became, â€Å"a nuisance by asking far too many questions of everybody. This led him to learn about the relations between whites and blacks. After finding out about the white man beating the black boy he began to ask questions regarding race and why there is a puzzling coexistence between whites and blacks. He asked his mother why that happened and she simply responded by saying, â€Å"You’re too young young to understand. † She did this to dodge this contr oversial topic. He had so many questions regarding this topic and no one in his community was willing to give him a straight, if any, answer. On another occasion, Richard asked his mother if they could look in the white side of the train and noticed his mother becoming irritated. â€Å"I had begun to notice that my mother became irritated when I questioned her about whites and blacks, and I could not quite understand it. † His inquisitive nature and lack of answers lead him to alienate himself from his community by going on his journey to the North in order to answer these questions of racism. Richard’s curiosity led him to desire knowledge. This thirst for knowledge is another cause of alienation for Richard. It results in alienating himself as well as being alienated from the black community. For example, when Granny found out that her tenant, Ella, was reading Bluebeard and His Seven Wives to Richard, she objected to it and forbade her from reading to him on religious grounds by saying, â€Å"That’s the Devil’s work. † When Richard protested, she responded by saying, â€Å"You’re going to burn in Hell. † It seems that her deep religious beliefs did not promote creativity or knowledge. Her disallowance of creativity and expanding his mind only made it more desirable for Richard. He secretly took books from Ella and tried to read them. Another example of this is when he wrote the story in the local black paper. His own classmates did not believe that he had written it himself and thought he had stolen the idea for the story. After this occurrence he said, â€Å"If I had thought anything in writing the story, I had thought that perhaps it would make me more acceptable to them, and now it was cutting me off from them more completely that ever. This experience led him to want to go to the North to pursue a writing career, something he could not do in the South because it was discouraged by whites and could have fatal consequences, and because his community is not all that supportive because of that. In this way he is alienated from his community and alienating himself. His curious nature and thirst for knowledge led him to seek religion to answer the questions he had regarding racism. Religion is an additional source of alienation for Richard. He is constantly being pressured to join the church congregation by his mother, Aunt Addie, and Granny. One of the first unpleasant experiences he had with religion can be found in the first pages of the book. His mother invited their local church’s preacher to dinner and that night’s dinner consisted of soup and fried chicken, a sign that it was a special dinner. Richard refused to eat the soup and while everyone else finished their soup and began eating chicken he became upset, believing that â€Å"the preacher [was] going to eat all the chicken. This dinner had a negative effect on him because he learned that â€Å"the preacher, like his father, was used to having his own way. † Since he disliked his father for abandoning his family, it was natural for him to associate this religious figure with his father and therefore, he saw religion in a negative way. After being persuaded by his classmates to give religion a try, he makes an effort to join the crowd, â⠂¬Å"I was so starved for association with people that I allowed myself to be seduced by it all. although he made an effort, he could not share his family’s rigid Christian fundamentalism, further alienating himself from his family and his community. Richard was not a believer because he â€Å"had not settled in [his] mind whether [he] believed in God or not; his existence or nonexistence never worried [him]. † After going to a revival at the local church and confessing to the other boys that he felt nothing, â€Å" they too admitted that they felt nothing. † This only confirmed his belief that religion led to conformism. He believed this because of the harsh environment in which he had to live that was reluctant to answer the questions he had about society. He realized that the conformist nature of religion would not lead him to finding the answers he sought of racism, nor would it satisfy his desire for knowledge on the issue. Had he succumbed to the wishes of his friends and family he would have given up his individuality and conformed to the way of life available in the South. By not being able to share in his community’s religious beliefs, he further alienates himself from the rest of the group because of his nonconformity. Richard Wright alienates himself from his community because he does not share societal and religious beliefs followed by those in his community. He refuses to conform to his degraded position in society. Richard does not accept a fundamentalist Christianity because it is used to obstruct his goal of becoming a writer, primarily by Granny. Although he is an outsider who feels little connection with other people, he still cares for them nonetheless, as it is shown when he decides to go North with the promise to send for his mother and his brother. These are the causes of alienation seen in Black Boy. How to cite Alienation in â€Å"Black Boy†, Papers

Modern Labor Economics Theory and Evidence Public Policy

Question: Discuss about the Modern Labor Economics for Theory and Evidence Public Policy. Answer: As there is only one supplier in the market, the market is similar to a monopoly market. This will give the seller the opportunity of being the price maker and earn supernormal profit. Increasing the revenue will require the seller to lose the profit maximizing strategy. For maximizing revenue marginal revenue has to be zero (MR = 0), whereas, the profit maximizing policy suggests the marginal revenue (MR) has to be equal to marginal cost (MC) (Ehrenberg Smith, 2016). The following figure presents the situation. As per the figure above, to increase the revenue will require the seller to lower the price level. As per the law of demand, a decrease in price will increase the demand and sales as well. This will only in turn increase the revenue, which is the objective of the seller (Canto, Joines Laffer, 2014). On the other hand, if he increases the price, it will reduce the demand and the total revenue might fall even if the profit increases, which is not the goal of the seller. The main purpose of the seller is to maximize the revenue. To do so, he has to change his production process from equalling marginal revenue to marginal cost. The new policy that has to be adopted here is producing at a point where the marginal revenue is zero. According to absolute advantage theory when a country is more efficient in producing a good, it has absolute advantage over the other countries (Feenstra, 2015). It does not mean it will increase efficiency in the countrys overall production. Comparative advantage theory has to be adopted here to ensure increased efficiency and losing the opportunity cost which will affect the countries negatively. As per the figure above, the country 1 has absolute advantage over country 2, over the both goods. But this does not mean producing both the goods will help the countrys economy. If the country 1 according to the figure above produces good 1 and the country 2 produces good 2, then trade, it will increase the social welfare and generate more income. This way both countries can improve from trade. It will increase both countries Gross Domestic Product. The comparative advantage theory suggests that in doing so the country will avoid the lesser opportunity cost and increase efficiency (Costinot et al., 2013). The country two will also benefit from this situation. If one among the two counties has absolute advantage over all the goods, it should produce the good which bears less opportunity cost. This will leave other country with the option of producing the other good for which it incurs less opportunity cost as well. This way both the countries can increase efficiency. References: Canto, V. A., Joines, D. H., Laffer, A. B. (2014). Foundations of supply-side economics: Theory and evidence. Academic Press. Costinot, A., Donaldson, D., Vogel, J., Werning, I. (2013). Comparative advantage and optimal trade policy (No. w19689). National Bureau of Economic Research. Ehrenberg, R. G., Smith, R. S. (2016). Modern labor economics: Theory and public policy. Routledge. Feenstra, R. C. (2015). Advanced international trade: theory and evidence. Princeton university press.